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History is a Teacher

History is a Teacher do we comprehend the lessons ? Khartoum city, the Sudanese capital, witnessed riots lasted for three days in early August 2005. About 300 persons were killed in the violence erupted between the’ southerners’ and the ‘northerners’, many incidents of looting, burning, and destroying were reported in Khartoum and other cities of Sudan. This riot occurred following the news of Dr. John Garang death in a plane crash. Dr. John Garang was the leader of the rebel in the south of Sudan. He fledged the peace agreement between the south of Sudan and the Sudanese government, which was signed in January 2005 putting an end for the twenty two years civil war in south Sudan. Tension and an apprehensive atmosphere surrounded Dr. John Garang’s funeral, in Juba city of south Sudan. Many peace talks were navigated during the course of the war between the south and the north. These peace talks and ‘agreements’ used to fail in what many Sudanese intellectuals call ‘ The Addiction of The Failure’ referring not just to the peace agreements, but also to the crisis of the governance in Sudan. Sudan has been cycling in the evil ring of ailing fragile democracy and exclusive tyrannical regimes since the independence in 1956. The peace talks were influenced by the leaders’ personal proclivities and by certain political parties’ agenda. Many other political parties and ethnic groups were not involved. The failure of the peace agreements and the continuous Sudanese crisis of governance taught us lessons: manipulating power for narrow acquisitions never guaranteed lasting powerful positions; it just accumulated more burdens upon the Sudanese people while making the leaders notorious. This power abuses also deepened the fragmentations and mistrust between the Sudanese people leaving Sudan suffers from divisions. The exclusion of other political and ethnic dynamics worked as pitfalls for peace agreements and stability because peace processes were limited to individuals (political leaders) on the top of political regimes the fact undermines achieving comprehensive peace agreements. The Sudanese people used to pay the high painful cost of manipulation and abuse from their own bloods, youth, security, prosperity, and international reputation. The oppression of the people of Sudan along with the bigotry of the leaders resulted in desperation, depression, violence, and vast flights of robust Sudanese professionals and intellectuals who should have built the country. The marginalization of Sudanese people in different parts of the country resulted in societal maladies of ethnic tensions, hatred, mistrust, and fragmentations. Economic monopolization resulted in economic deterioration, lack of basic service, diseases, severe poverty and infrastructural destruction. The civil war in the south was kept on going for twenty-two years due to the mistrust resulted from the historical failure to fulfill the commitments. The civil war in the west- Darfur- culminated long history of marginalization. The eruption of violence in Darfur was preceded by signals indicating the dangerous situation; ethnic conflicts and armed robbery were going on in the west long time ago, but they were neglected and hided. The same scenery repeats itself in the east; people of eastern Sudan are undergoing marginalization and negligence in addition to the political exclusion and cultural marginalization that prevail on all other Sudanese parts. Despite all repeated signals of danger and all lessons of failure Sudanese people continue to commit the same historical faults and continue to pay for these faults from their own accounts of security and prosperity while wasting time, wealth, and capabilities. The last historical lesson was the incidents of violence followed the demise of Dr. John Garang. These incidents were signals for the post agreement scenery. They imply questions and indicators about the Sudanese people preparedness for the looming period. The demise of Dr. Garang was a litmus test for the peace agreement: its solidity, weakness, and consequences. A quick reading for the incidents of violence that followed Dr. John Garang’s death bares the unpreparedness of the Sudanese for the post peace agreement demands. The incidents of violence also bare the gap between the leadership and its base in both sides. This indicates the poor peace awareness among the Sudanese people. The involvement of the Sudanese people in the peace process was a must. The involvement doesn’t mean the physical attendance; it rather means the information sharing and the feedback before and during the peace process. It also means the involvement of all Sudanese political forces and ethnic dynamics. To reach an inclusive peace agreement and stability it is important to create and activate democratic institutions and channels of expression through which the values of peace and tolerance could be laid in the Sudanese awareness. The participation in the peace process means the joint development work and social activities that conducted by all Sudanese people to strengthen peaceful interaction besides the exchange of cultural experience, which would promote understanding and recognition. Freedom of expression, enough latitude, and facilitation for Sudanese people to participate would play a pivotal role on bolstering the peace and the socio-political stability. And it doesn’t end here; there is a lot of work awaited from the Sudanese society itself. People must understand that it is their decision to choose either sustainable socio-political stability that brings economic prosperity, or fragile superficial peace that threatened by historical fragmentations and narrow visions. So Sudanese people must nurture the acquisition of the last peace process and work jointly to make it solid and sustainable. Rabah Ali Omer Aug, 22nd, 2005 Chicago, IL

Sudan in the Fire Ring

In a new phenomenon of disconnect, Sudan is witnessing inconsistent scenarios of optimism in the south, where the twenty two years civil war is about to be ended by the signing of the peace agreement, and pessimism in the west where the war is escalating between the government militias and the rebel groups. 

Kenya’s and Sudan's foreign ministers voiced on Monday 20th of December, 20,2004, that a final peace agreement between Khartoum and southern Sudanese rebels could be reached before the end of the year. On the contrary the Sudanese government has ordered its troops in three Darfur states in the west to observe an immediate cease-fire. An African Union official said they could not yet verify the government's cease-fire pledge. 

Although Sudan is Africa’s biggest country and potentially is the richest, it experienced the most vicious man made disasters: drought and desertification caused by deforestation, which then resulted in famine. Then there is the vicious man made disaster of the civil war in its different dynamics. 

Sudan experienced the longest civil war in the continent, which claimed millions lives and uprooted thousands. The war devastated basic life means, generated diseases, and created social disintegration and desperation. Sudan’s conflicts are unique because they are scattered in different Sudanese areas and they are between various ethno-cultural and ethno-political groups who become involved due to different circumstances.

The civil war in the South between the Sudan People Liberation Movement (SPLA) and the Sudanese government lasted for twenty years, during which it was ebbing and flowing; many peace agreements were reached and failed, scattered parts from the south were involved. Analysis gives different causes for these conflicts depending on the approach and when the analysis is made. Several historical conditions and events have added new dimensions to these conflicts. 

Sudan’s diversity has different aspects that includes ethnicity, culture, religion, politics and most important the geography. This in addition to unwise development policies, under-utilization of the rich natural resource, and mismanagement of the human resources; all ended in a severe lack of civil awareness, democratic institutions and human rights commitment. This resulted in exhaustive Sudanese civil wars and the other beleaguers. 

Sudan is faced with business of trying to resolve ethnic problems, resolve the nationality questions and establish an order that will ensure equality of development for all the people of the country and their cultures and languages. The civil war is only one reflection of these issues, however, it is impossible to overcome the backwardness of economic, political and cultural affairs without overcoming burden of the past, ethnic fragmentation. 

The recent Sudanese peace agreement, which has been carried out in Naivasha/Kenya since 2003, and is supposed to be finalized by December

2004, gave the hope of stability and restoration of the political, economic, and social order. However the uprising of the western destructive conflict between the western rebel groups: the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), and the Sudan liberation Army (SLA), has made peace and stability doubtful. This is in addition to the potential conflict in other parts, the east for example. 

Peace agreements remain superficial unless they have been consolidated with comprehensive socio-economic and socio-political plans that addressing the different interrelated aspects of Sudanese dilemma. 

We could start from the grassroots level up to the high political and economic system if we were to dismantle and analyze the Sudanese problem.  Natural resources and wealth offer power and supremacy. They are the core points of competitions and conflicts. So they are the points to consider while addressing individuals’ awareness and attitude in relation to organization and democratization. 

To demonstrate and achieve the economic development, at the same time guaranteeing the application of institutionalization and order, the introduction of civil education and democracy needs to be accompanied by actual economic projects. This will pave the way professionally to the social interaction and integration. This idea stems from the fact the human interests direct him to take different positions: aggressive or peaceful interaction. Allowing the economic interest to be shared and organized by historically conflicting groups, while introducing the civic culture, will give the chance to peaceful interaction, understanding, recognition and integration. 

Rabah,

15 Sept. 2004, 

Pretoria, South Africa 

Extremism and Terrorism

         

Extremism and Terrorism

                                           

          There is a pressing need to reread the world’s events, and to change the angles of looking at the differences. The differences that expressed on fanatic manners of extremists and biased policies of politicians. The controversy over extremism and terrorism is radiating; spinning rage, resentment, quandary, and astonishment. People are pointing fingers to each other seeking respite by accusing culture, mindset, religion, and policies.

         It is a vital step to question the conceptuality behind events of violence and bombings. It is essential to dig deep for the roots of motivations in a comprehensive approach, but the neutrality and objectivity of such motion is an imperative element because it is dedicated by the responsibility of being humans; sharing the same essence.

        Before navigating battles of affiliations or standing to condemn and appall, we must take few steps back to assess the references, to rationally comprehend the reality provisions and dynamics and the past causalities.  By assessing the reference I claim the very fact of being human and what it draws: needs, motives, desires, and aspirations. It might request to trace back the instincts long time ago, but purifying the mere essence and clearing the panes would verify the vision, and from there we could start.

          It is natural to have spiritual dimension as a personality component, it is instinctual to enrich and maintain this spirituality. How to exercise and irrigate the spirituality depends on the context, the history, and the socio-cultural perceptions. The mechanisms differ accordingly, but the ultimate aims and destinies are similar. History tells us that cavemen had clients that symbolized superior power.  History also tells us that the following nations resorted to myths to nourish their spiritual aspirations, the ancients had gods and goddesses who acted as nature guides, religions along with prophets and messengers were experiences to answer the same question of faith and fate. Cultures everywhere and every time use to have their own sacred symbols, totems, clients, beliefs, practices, and religions. Furthermore, the prominent American scholar, Joseph Campbell, gave us valuable outcomes from his brilliant study on religions and mythologies all over the world and through out history. He extracted that human’s spiritual needs, desires, and aspirations are typical, they differ in how people articulate them according to the historic context and the environmental provisions.

          The spiritual dimension heaves the entire human experience of beliefs, values, passions, loyalties, feelings and affiliations. It shapes one’s needs, desires, and ¾ motivations. The spiritual dimension represents the pot in which emotions of affiliations are sited and spinning.

       After the spiritual layer come the life’s necessary activities that portrayed in people’s relations, communal ties, economic activities, political interests, and social aspirations. Both the spirituality and the life’s necessities flow and blend to formulate personalities.

         Extremism is a tense, fanatic, and paranoid way to express sentiments of religious affiliation. It could be induced by myopic visions, irrationality, oppression, deprivation, and disorder, which create fertile sphere for emotional manipulation. Extremism could be fueled by insensitivities or disrespect that play as pretexts for brutalities.

          The crucial point the individuals need to address is how to approach a formula that allows the instinctual tendencies and needs to be expressed sensibly while celebrating life interests rationally. From here stems the issue of the reference assessment. It is imperative to assert what are the concepts and principles behind actions: what are the convenient means to handle them, what are the goals to achieve, and what are the limits rule the scenes.

       Do the extremists kill others because these victims are not faithful or infidels? If this is the justification, what would extremists say about the violence that occurs among people of the same religion (Muslims), and the assassinations between different religious sects? And if the bombings are retaliations for grievance policies, what would the extremists say if we knew that among the victims were protesters for such policies, moderates, meek individuals, Muslim ones, kids, and kids’ parents? Could we set the priorities and the principles that refer to a reasonable reverential ways to exhibit beliefs and faith?

         On the other hand, human rights conventions teach us that all people have equal rights to decent peaceful life; this necessitate equal responses to all crimes against humanity wherever they were committed regardless of political interests and pragmatic alliances.

         

       We need to look at each other as individuals, not groups. Currently we fill ourselves with antagonism as a group against another one: Muslims versus non-Muslims in the world, Christians versus Muslims in the war against terrorism, Israelis versus Arab, white people against others during the apartheid in

South Africa

, Hutu versus Tutsi in the

Great

Lake

region, communists versus capitalists during the cold war. None of these made sense to sophisticated values and deep understanding of human legacy. The common perilous line in these episodes of conflict is the notion of the monotheism, the ‘us versus them’ drive, which undermines the fundamental rights of groups and individuals to embrace and express their beliefs.      We need to understand each other’s needs, aspirations, and motivations ¾ as individuals to approach tolerance and harmony. Every group, society, and alliance needs to understand that they are not the sole occupants of the universe. Hinduism gives us vibrant example of harmony. Hinduism is the most pluralistic religion in the world, however, it is built upon diversity and holds within itself a marvelous variety of teachers and teachings from what appear to be the most primitive forms to the most abstract spiritual philosophies and yogic practices. Being the majority in

India

, Hinduism values of tolerance and pluralism are the main strains in the fabric of the wisdom of the Indian society. This is a vocal experience of tolerant and deep sophisticated interpretation for difference.

         

        People are camping themselves in wars of religions, ideologies, and cultures. This is clearly manifested in the war against terrorism as perceived from one camp, and the war against the imperialist infidels as perceived from the other camp. For all¾ respect, freedom, and dignity should act as vigorous threads of references for people's actions. People should embrace these principles while enrolled in any sort of affiliation activity. People need to lay and believe that morality comes from a commitment to treat others as we wish to be treated. How to embed and plant these principles is the urgent business to achieve.

         Societies that have undergone oppression, deprivation, desperation, illiteracy, and bigotry regimes would need a maneuver to be democratized. Working with the populace and at the grassroots level up to the high political apparatus would be the effective method. Opening channels for expression and supporting social organizations would pave the way to root values of reasonable peaceful dialogue. Strengthening civil society institutions would fortify the democratization process. Economic development and advancement would fight the deprivation and desperation; it would create productive and innovative people. This would guarantee positive interactions with the world. Oppressed societies need intensive work on rationalizing their rhetoric and introducing scientific and critical ways of thinking.

            Societies that are affluent and fortunate bear the responsibility of maintaining world’s resources and sustaining societies’ peace. This would be through benign intentions, supporting justice and democratic voices, and bolstering civil society institutions. This must be in a prudent manner considering sensitivities of others’ faith and sacred symbols. Also it needs the involvement of rational and intellectual voices within targeted societies.

Simultaneously, bridges are needed to be built to communicate these societies. Cooperation from developed democratic societies is requested to uplift lagged ones. There is an urgent need to open channels of constructive conversation between societies, different segments must be involved, and this would pave the way for moderate mutual perceptions.

The bridges and channels are an imperative call for moderates, peace activists, intellectuals, media agents, artists, scientist and humane ones who are earnestly concerned about rational fair world. The bridges and channels must work on the following blueprints: 

• Exchange cultural activities to distribute values of tolerance and freedom.

• Work on media channels and education institutions to introduce the objective critical way of thinking.

• Work with civil entities such as professionals' unions, youth associations, and women's networks to exchange experiences and broaden knowledge to guarantee rooted civil values.

• Cooperation between art schools and institutions would create latitude for progressive ways of expression and innovations.

• Embolden rational voices would help to make wise moderate leaders and role models.

• Training and experience exchange between journalist and media agents would help to rationalize the rhetoric and public consciousness.

All of this would serve as dialogue channels, which would create a solid base against violence and extremism.

          It is important to acknowledge that societies are interdependent sharing the earth heritage, and if they were to maintain their mutual interests, there is work to be done to bridge the vacuums.

Rabah Ali Omer

July, 22^nd, 2005

Chicago

,

IL

Reading Portfolio

    The articles I have chosen talk about the need for political reform and democracy in the Middle East countries. Many of the articles focused on the religion extremism in relation to politics and democracy application. They were debating the U.S foreign policy role and influence on these countries. The countries were Egypt , Algeria, and Morocco.

One of the argument points was the U.S policymakers should have more sensitivity on its foreign policy towards this world; particularly on the sensitive issues such as religion and social structure and heritage. The other common point is that the democratic advancement in the Middle East is vital for U.S interests in the region. This imposes more prudence on U.S methods towards the region. Also one of the points that the Middle East countries, both governments and people, must be serious about their political, economic, and social reforms. There is a lot of work to achieve in human rights realm to build structural justice and sustainable democracies.

These articles tackled the emergent issues of democratization and U.S foriegn policy. Isues of peace, religion, culture, and international relations are the areas of conflicts. So they speak to all those who are concerned about world dynamics.This is an invitation to those who are interested to be involved in dialogues and exchange ideas with others to comment on this modest transom (Reading Portifolio), which will be regularly updated. It would help to find answers for questions, learn about others points of view, and be aware of trends of thinking, and developments of political and social matters.

It is important to be an effective agent in the world; to do so it is important to be aware of its dynamics, and how to be critical, thorough, and informed about politics and societies.

Draft on Proposal on the final Project

    Proposal on the final Project
Native American Culture/Ho Chunk Tribe

      Native American culture is one of the most special, rich, and symbolic cultures in the world’s history. Although many studies were conducted on Native American culture, still many people know little about the deep ties that native Americans have towards nature, community, and the whole world.
My project will study the Native American culture through the Ho Chunk tribe culture. It will study the spiritual life, including concepts of birth, death, ancestors, myths, nature, clients, taboos, and symbolism. Within the spiritual context I will focus on women’s positions.
In all human societies women have or used to have special positions; negative or positive. The Native American culture is an inevitable culture to study women’s position within; because the whole culture has different unique traits. Also the culture is full of conceptions which are valuable to stop at. This project will investigate women’s social status, power, and associated taboos. It will study the marriage traditions. All of this will be connected to the spiritual aspects.
Mythology, religions, ancients’ beliefs, different cultures, and history are the strains to trace if we want to have deep interpretation for humans beliefs system, needs, and drives and that’s why I am conducting this project.
This project will investigate the preceded literature on the same theme. It will also include interviews and discussions with native Americans and other interested people. It will be composed of photos and web sites links.
The nature in Native Americans’ memory is holy, and all the surrounding elements are brothers and sisters who belong to the mother— earth. Women are believed to symbolize the earth because of their giving nature. For those reasons women are associated with many concepts: power, taboos, evil, goodness. All that is portrayed through different traditions and symbolism.
I think this study will offer deep interpretation of the Native Americans’ ties within the community, their connections with the nature, how they perceive the life cycle, and what life means to them, all of this through the women’s spiritual power.

"America Beyond The Color Line"

    

         Watching America Beyond The Color Line, puts you in front of facts you might have not be exposed to if you are running life just within the self circle, and if you are a benign listener, or an easy-guided person. Going to South Africa in a long visit, is one of the significant experiences to go through, watching the slight friction of the newly freed people; newly freed from the fear of inferiority, and the illusion of superiority. Having a quick glance on the world history focusing on different types of conflicts; Race appears as a thread connects the fabric of human beings' dynamics. Belonging to humanity requests bearing huge responsibility if we were claiming to be truly humans. Humanity draws the values of beauty, tolerance, and projection for the best.

      In Sudan I was explaining the on-going so-called ethnic civil wars in relation to the bad governance, the staleness of institutions, and the unstable socio-economic order, believing that ethnic grouping is the sole affiliation to resort to in the absence of representative civil entities. However, having these experiences manifested racial segregation and economic discrimination, I find myself up to a grab! Because I am suppose to be peering the first world. I have no reference to resort to understand what that is all about, resources? Couldn’t it be distributed fairly and get the maximum benefits from utilizing the bolstered efforts and give laws the latitude to organize interests? Power? Why is the race the way to express that? Because it heaves common understanding and loyalty? But being humans and belonging to the earth planet is more comprehensive, and more fascinating! And why power for? Is controlling people an instinct desire, or sort of sickness, or at least a narrow way of taking life? Intelligence? But the more intelligence is there the more understanding, tolerance, and enriching tendency we could experience!

    Logically, people are affected and shaped significantly by their environments, and their contextual models ahead. Could we be less superficial and reject the stereotypes, and put the dots onto the letters and seek rational remedies for our societies’ maladies.

    Scientifically, the more you provide body with nutrients and mind with knowledge and exercise, the healthier and smarter generations you gain. Could we be positive towards the world and build more bridges: across race, religion, class, and towards nature?

    Naturally the world is tones harmonize to give the entire song, it is composed of diverse chapters to confer one play. The world is a puzzle pieced together to give the complete picture. So, could we ponder about colorful world?

The prominent American scholar, Joseph Kambell, gave us a brilliant example on how to deal with the human heritage; he collected the scattered crystals in humans’ spiritual experience. He traveled in geography and time seeking the full picture of the soul truth. He crossed barriers of religion, race and geography because he believed it was a noble tendency.

Note:

America Beyond The Color Line is a documentary video program conducted by _

Reflection :Rice Urges Egyptians and Saudis to Democratize

     On Tuesday 6/21  I read a New York Times newspaper article about Rice visit to Egypt and Suadi Arabia. She was encouraging the people to have more space of freedom throgh election process, she said those societies have no problems with their intelgence or aspirations it is all about liberty.

     The listeners complained that her call for freedom is undercut with the American indiference to Israeli ' war crimes', misreatment of prisoners at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and Abu Ghraib and the continuuing violence in Iraq.`

     The article is important because it tells about a current event and shows what is going on in the world.

      The interested people in this article are the politicians all around the world, and the ordinary people who have interest in global and international relations issues.

   Democracy is a must in the world and it claims other associted concepts with it : justice, accountability and transparency.

Reserach:U.S policy Towards Africa

Africa has been associated with certain words or characteristics that imply it is lagging behind. The so-called "dark" continent or the "lost" continent suffers from historic burdens of colonization, dictatorships, poverty, and civil wars. There is still a long journey for Africa to walk towards democracy, freedom, and prosperity. There are still African countries crawling under the heavy gravity of poverty and tyrannical regimes, there are still countries torn by ethnic conflicts and civil wars. The political, economic and social factors are interrelated and interdependent historically, so that we live in a dynamic inter-influenced world where nations leave historical fingerprints on others: positively or negatively. The fingerprints left by the U.S. in particular can be seen in the cases of troubles in different parts of Africa. Zimbabwe in the south, Rwanda in the Great Lakes region (the middle), the Eritrea- Ethiopia conflict in the east. Does Human rights issue play a major role in U.S policy towards Africa? Has U.S been successful in promoting Human Rights and peace in Africa? And what are the challenges? The focus of this paper will be the following three pillars: · Diplomatic Interventions · Humanitarian Aid · Peacekeeping Support.

                                              Zimbabwe

Since 1980 Zimbabwe government was bound by the Lancaster House Agreement that expired in 1990,which protects white Zimbabweans from having their farms taken away for the first ten years of the country's independence. Under the agreement, land distribution is to take place under "willing buyer, willing seller" terms, and the government is to "pay promptly adequate compensation" for property it does acquire. The U.K. gives Zimbabwe 44 million pounds to resettle the land. In 2000 donors, including Britain, the United States, International Monetary Fund and World Bank, oppose the move and suspend their aid to Zimbabwe. The British government said it could only support the land program if it benefited the rural poor but claims much of the land is going to Mugabe's associates. The Zimbabwe official's speech, which was highly critical to U.S in July 1986, imposed freeze Zimbabwe-U.S relations. The speech criticized the U.S policy of "constructive engagement" towards Pretoria, which was maintaining the apartheid regime then. The U.S-Zimbabwe relations improved markedly in 1988, when $17 million in U.S. aid was restored after a two-year cutoff, following a dispute over U.S. policy toward South Africa. The evolution of the peace process in Angola and the holding of elections in Namibia also contributed to a reduction in tensions between the United States and Zimbabwe. These improved relations provided an opportunity for the Bush administration to press the Zimbabwe government to respect human rights. The administration did not issue public protests on human rights violations in Zimbabwe but, according to a State Department official, a "continuing dialogue" was maintained. The resumption of U.S. aid in August 1988 marked a turning point in U.S.-Zimbabwe relations. The U.S aid to the South African backed Jonas Savimbi’s UNITA continues to constrain the relations. In fiscal year of 1989, with aid resorted, the U.S. provided $5 million through the U.S. Agency for International Development to promote the private agricultural sector in Zimbabwe as well as $240,000 under the International Military Education Training program. In early 1989 Zimbabwe won international approval of political and economic developments in the country with new investment package, including the prospect of U.S. government-backed insurance for U.S. investors in Zimbabwe by overseas Private Investment Corporation. The economy did not develop as hoped for. Zimbabwe was a wealthy nation with a history of manufacturing for export, a thriving tourist industry, and a strong agricultural sector. The economic slide, which began in 1995, is coming to a critical point. Unemployment is over 50 percent. An acute fuel shortage and an inflation rate above 60 percent have crippled domestic industries. Britain suspended funding for the government's land distribution program because according to British officials the program was riddled with mismanagement and corruption. And the United States followed suit in 1998. According to the U.S. Department of State, the United States has invested over $750 million in Zimbabwe since 1980. It has appropriated $14 million in foreign aid for Zimbabwe in 2000, and the Administration has requested $16 million for 2001 (manufacturing for export, a thriving tourist industry, and a strong agricultural sector. The economic slide, which began in 1995, has been coming to a critical point. Unemployment is now over 50 percent. Furthermore, an acute fuel shortage and an inflation rate above 60 percent have crippled domestic industries. In September 2001 a conference of Common wealth Foreign Ministers in Abuja, Nigeria offered both Zimbabwe and the UK a last opportunity to agree on the funding of the land program. In December 2001 the U.S. offered $ 26 millions for a democratic transition, debt relief, and economic reform provided the conditions in the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act were met. In 2003 the U.S. diplomats were fatigued and the U.S. administration gave South Africa the lead on solving Zimbabwe crisis and South Africa’s president promised to tackle it. In January 2005, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an apparent hardening of policy by including Zimbabwe among six “outposts of tyranny” requiring close U.S. attention. In March 2005 U.S. expanded its freeze on the assets of Mugabe and about 80 other prominent Zimbabweans for another year to 6 march 2006. In 1980,after seven years of war against the British colonization, in free elections that included the African majority, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) won and Robert Mugabe became the first president of Zimbabwe. The capital was renamed Harare. Government policy was to maintain a capitalist economy and to ask the white settlers to stay in the country; confiscation of white-owned farmland did not take place. Robert Mugabe's rule was autocratic, the ZAPU, a coalition partner until 1982, faced persecution 1982-1987. In 1988 merging ZANU and ZAPU created one -party state. President Robert Mugabe has been the Zimbabwe president for about 24 years. He was reelected for many times. Zimbabwe has been witnessing economic and political crisis. The economic deterioration is manifested in the high unemployment, the thousands of Zimbabweans who are in need for food aid, acute fuel shortages. The political crisis of is seen in the violations of fundamental freedoms, lack latitude of expression and, monopolization of political participation, and other human rights abuses. All of this resulted in hundreds of Zimbabweans fleeing the country.

                                 Ethiopia- Eritrea Conflict

There were both recent and deeper causes for the conflicted erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia on May 1998,which claimed thousands of soldiers and displaced 250,000. In 1941, after World War II, Italian rulers were ejected from the region and the British took over. Eventually The British assigned the area to the UN. Responding to the Eritreans’ aspiration for independence, and the Ethiopian’s for sovereignty, the UN federated the countries in 1952. One decade later, Mengistu Haile Mariam annexed Eritrea. In 1991 Eritrea gained its independence after thirty years of struggle. The direct causes for the recent conflict were the disputes over borders. After many military actions along the borders, Eritrean forces moved into areas administrated by Ethiopia, claiming that it is taking back its territories from Ethiopia according to the colonial treaties. The Ethiopian government demanded withdrawal of Eritrean forces. This led to the eruption of conflict between the two countries. The deeper causes could be traced back to the time of alliance between the two countries to sweep out the Ethiopian dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam: tensions and disputes were left unresolved, disagreement over government approach, and the relations between the two countries were relying on personal relationships between the leaders of the two countries. This led to an absence of the communication institutions during the crisis. Also the conflict between the two countries culminated in historic economic and political problems. Ethiopia had to face titanic debt and, disconnected colossal population, while Eritrea didn’t have dept and its population was relatively homogeneous, though it was challenged by infrastructural problems. The war realm, over which the parties were conflicting, is of scarce fertile land and dense population, so people were willing to die over land. This was conflagrated by the economic deterioration, massive poverty, and food insecurity.

U.S Policy:

The two countries requested U.S interference when the crisis arose on May, 1998. The U.S. assistant secretary, Susan Rice, and her team designed a formula to address the conflict. Then she attended the Organization of African Unity (OAU) summit in Algeria and succeeded in building a consensus on the formula as means to resolve the conflict. The U.S imposed an air strike to stop the air war; the Pentagon officials and the U.S president, Clinton, supported this. Late in 1998 President Clinton and Secretary Albright sent a special envoy, Tony Lake. He conducted many visits in the region. He led a team that worked with the OAU to produce the OAU "Framework Agreement" and "Modalities of Implementation”. Ethiopia accepted the two documents, but Eritrea persevered, and the United States and OAU continued to pressurize Eritrea to accept. The United States, the Algerian special representative, the OAU, and the United Nations worked intensively with the conflicting parties. These efforts finally yielded the detailed peace implementation plan in June, 2000, and the UN established a peace keeping force mission to patrol the buffer zone between the two countries. When the peace agreement approached, the United States pledged to support the agreement's realization. This includes demining, demobilization, peacekeeping training, humanitarian aid, support for resettling the displaced, support to the International Committee of the Red Cross on detainee repatriation, reconstruction aid, the return of the Peace Corps, trade and investment, port issues, International Monetary Fund/World Bank credits, and debt relief. In addition, the United States contributed to the African peacekeeping mission. The peace agreement was implemented regardless of the frictions during the crucial phase of border demarcation, with all its legal, humanitarian and human rights implications. Because of the global war against terrorism, which started in 2003, both countries will play a strategic role considering their location in the Horn of Africa. US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld visited the two countries in December 2003 and US military officials made many visits for talks with President Isayas Afewerki of Eritrea and Prime Minister Meles Zenawi of Ethiopia. The purpose was to secure US bases; this was a major factor in shifting the peace process.

                                                   Rwanda

Background:

Rwanda is located in the Great Lakes region of Africa. It contains many water resources: Lake Victoria, Lake Kivu, Lake Tanganyika and others. The Twa, who lived as hunters and gatherers, originally inhabited the region. The Hutu Groups, who were farmers, immigrated to the region. The Tutsi, who had prominent position because of their cattle treasure, followed Hutu. In pre-colonial Rwanda, the terms "Hutu" and "Tutsi", after centuries of intermarriage, represented distinctions of economic class more than ethnic origin. A rich Hutu could become a "Tutsi," and a Tutsi who fell in economic stature could become a "Hutu." The Belgians sharpened the distinctions between Hutu and Tutsi by policies. Who had more than 10 cows was considered Tutsi and all others were Hutu. Also Belgians favored Tutsi greatly offering them opportunities for education and economic advancement, and designating them as administrators. Close to Rwanda’s independence- 1950s- The Belgians switched their support to the Tutsi, replacing the administrators with Hutus. In the 1959s violent attacks occurred between recently formed ethnic-based political parties without sufficient effort from the Belgians to cease it. Hundreds of Tutsi died and thousands displaced and fled the country in these attacks. By 1969 some of the Tutsi refugees created commando groups and commenced incursions into Rwanda. The Hutu led Rwanda to independence by July 1969; the Belgians transferred power to Hutu who continued to monopolize political, economic, and social affairs. They embraced Tutsi’s attacks to massacre them and strengthen their authority. This drove hundreds of Tutsi into exile in Tanzania, Uganda, and Burundi. The flight of Tutsi in the neighboring countries shackled the crisis and diffused the conflict in the region. In 1972 the Tutsi army units in Burundi killed Hutus; the Hutu in Rwanda conducted a campaign of intimidation against Tutsi, and a similar event happened in 1988. In Uganda many Tutsi joined the opposition forces against Milton Obote’s government who executed Tutsi refugees in Uganda, confiscated their land, and looted their cattle. After the opposition gained the power, they rewarded the Tutsi by offering them prominent positions in the army. In 1987 Tutsi formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), an organization devoted to democratize Rwandan society and repatriate Rwandan refugees. The (RPF) attempted to return the Tutsi peacefully but the Rwandan government refused. In 1990 the Rwandan Patriotic Front Army, which was formed by (RPF), invaded Rwanda supported by Uganda. The two sides agreed to cease fire, and peace talks started July, 1992. During these talks many violent incidents occurred that were forged by Rwandan President and radical Hutu. In August 1993 both sides signed an agreement¾ the Arusha accord.

The Genocide:

In April 1994, the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi were both killed in a plane crash. Many suspected Hutu extremists, but publicly, the Hutu accused the Tutsi. In response the Rwandan army and the presidential Guard in the capital Kigali, launched the systematic mass killing against Tutsi civilians. All those carried Tutsi ID’s s were killed, all moderate Hutu who were supported power sharing with Tutsi were killed, all those who didn’t have ID’s were killed, all Hutu who refused to participate in the massacre were killed. The killers received directions through the radio from radical Hutu who were cheering on the killers. The Un forces were relatively small and the Security Council didn’t envisage such intervention. The UN did nothing to stop the catastrophe. The UN peacekeepers pulled out. Without support from the International community, the Rwandan Patriotic Front Army was trying to stop the genocide and they succeeded, leaving enormous humanitarian crisis in and around Rwanda. In Rwanda, the United States lacked the political will to coordinate a strategy to end the mass killings that plagued the country. Historically, Rwanda was not important to U.S. policymakers, it has been perceived as a nation with no natural resources or economic base (the United States had no investment in the country. The international community was generally satisfied with the stability of the government of Juvenal Habyarimana. And so overlooked the systematic discrimination against the Tutsi minority throughout his tenure. After the Cold War ended, the U.S. government more vigorously promoted a democratic system of government and the development of a robust civil society. It also promoted training for personnel of the National Assembly, study tours to the United States for leaders of new political parties, seminars for journalists, and support for human rights and women's organizations. At the same time, gross abuses of human rights by government officials in Rwanda were escalating. The U.S. government viewed the ethnically based discrimination and killings as a by-product of the civil war launched in 1990, and attempted to address them in the Arusha Peace Accords of 1993. Even while the United States promoted democratic reform, however, Rwandan authorities committed or fomented egregious human rights abuses including discrimination against and killing of members of the country's Tutsi minority. U.S. officials did not raise issues of accountability with Habyarimana during his visit to Washington in October 1993. The U.S. failure to condemn and isolate Habyarimana encouraged an expansion of the killings. Although there were ample warnings of the genocide from January 1994 on, the United States and its allies refused to enlarge and invigorate the UN peacekeeping force in Rwanda, UNAMIR (United Nations Assistance Mission in Rwanda), to protect Tutsi victims and disarm Hutu perpetrators. In the months preceding and throughout the genocide, U.S. pressure was never strong enough to contribute to ending the killings, nor did the United States support international military instruments sufficient to suppress the genocide. With a few exceptions, there was no strong condemnation or moral leadership that challenged the actions taken by the Rwandan government. The United States and its allies did not act on their obligations, as parties of the Geneva Convention, to prevent the genocide and punish the perpetrators. In the post-genocide period, the U.S. government was one of the biggest supporters of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and it has demanded accountability for perpetrators of the killings. The U.S. government has also contributed nearly $20 million to judicial and police systems since the end of the genocide. In addition, it has provided aid and training to Rwandan military courts, contributing to the improved functioning of investigations and prosecutions of abuses. In July 2005 Mrs. Bush visited the Rwandan capital, Kigali. She said the American people are committed to work with the people of Rwanda to advance education, especially for girls. She has donated 200,000 books for schools in Rwanda. The President Bush’s African Education Initiative provide students with schools supplies, scholarships and books. U.S. supports African peacekeeping efforts, though modest. The U.S. provided $10 million to support the development of the OAU’s new Mechanism for Conflict Resolution, Management, and Resolution. Washington provided equipment and nearly $30 million in funding for the West African-led peacekeeping operation being conducted in Liberia under the auspices of ECOWAS. During his October 1996 visit to Africa, former Secretary of State Warren Christopher stated that the U.S. would provide up to $20 million to help create a new all-African peacekeeping force, known as the African Crisis Response Force (ACRF). In September 1996 the Clinton administration announced that it would provide $20 million in additional security assistance to Uganda, Eritrea, and Ethiopia on the grounds that forces armed by Sudan threaten these nations. These countries, in turn, are providing weapons and other support to armed antigovernment groups in Sudan. U.S. security assistance to these countries is helping to fuel conflict in the region and could lead to a direct military confrontation between Sudan and its neighbors. The U.S secretary of state, Condoleezza Rice, addressed the closing session of the fourth annual African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Forum in Dakar, Senegal June 20 2005. She said, “ Only the people of Africa can solve the problems of Africa.” This is the premise of the U.S partnership with Africa. She indicated the responsibility of the developed nations to help. On that session U.S pointed a new U.S initiative announced by President Bush July 18, which will provide $ 200 million over five years to help the people of Africa participate more fully in trade and will open a fourth African trade hub office in Dakar. Condoleezza Rice announced a second initiative, the AGOA diversification Fund, which will allow several U.S. agencies to support African governments as they diversify their economies. She said the United States has tripled its development assistance to Africa. And it will double it again by 2010. Bush’s initiatives include $15 billion Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief; $1.2 billion in 15 nations; and programs to train half a million African teachers, offer scholarships to 300,000 African students, and help every state better protect the rights of women. The U.S. millennium grants to nations that govern justly promote economic freedom and invest in their people.

Closing and recommendations:

U.S. human rights policy in Africa has been mixed in terms of scope, application, and outcome. U.S. supports African peacekeeping efforts, though modest. The U.S. provided $10 million to support the development of the OAU’s new Mechanism for Conflict Resolution, Management, and Resolution. Washington provided equipment and nearly $30 million in funding for the West African-led peacekeeping operation being conducted in Liberia under the auspices of ECOWAS. During his October 1996 visit to Africa, former Secretary of State Warren Christopher stated that the U.S. would provide up to $20 million to help create a new all-African peacekeeping force, known as the African Crisis Response Force (ACRF). The U.S secretary of state, Condoleezza Rice, addressed the closing session of the fourth annual African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Forum in Dakar, Senegal June 20 2005. She said, “ Only the people of Africa can solve the problems of Africa.” This is the premise of the U.S partnership with Africa. She indicated the responsibility of the developed nations to help. On that session U.S pointed a new U.S initiative announced by President Bush July 18, which will provide $ 200 million over five years to help the people of Africa participate more fully in trade and will open a fourth African trade hub office in Dakar. Condoleezza Rice announced a second initiative, the AGOA diversification Fund, which will allow several U.S. agencies to support African governments as they diversify their economies. She said the United States has tripled its development assistance to Africa. And it will double it again by 2010. Bush’s initiatives include $15 billion Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief; $1.2 billion in 15 nations; and programs to train half a million African teachers, offer scholarships to 300,000 African students, and help every state better protect the rights of women. The U.S. millennium grants to nations that govern justly, promote economic freedom and invest in their people. In the G8 summit, June 2005, The UK Chancellor Gordon Brown has put forward a bold plan to tackle poverty in Africa He called for a doubling of European aid by 2010 and 100% debt relief, as well as an end to many trade subsidies. the plan face opposition in the US -. Mr Bush said that a key part of the plan did not fit with the US budget process. The G8 summit has ended with an agreement to boost aid for developing countries by $50bn (£28.8bn). · The debt of the 18 poorest nations in Africa is also being cancelled. On trade, there was a commitment to work towards cutting subsidies and tariffs. The key points concerning Africa in the G8 summit that includes the U.S are: Mr Blair said "only people who can change Africa ultimately are the Africans". · $3bn agreed for Palestinian Authority for investment in infrastructure. · Nigeria's President Olusegun Obasanjo described the deal as a "success". · G8 commits to training 20,000 peacekeepers for Africa. · African leaders to commit to democracy and good governance as part of the deal. · Debts of the 18 poorest countries to be forgiven. · Universal access to anti-HIV drugs in Africa by 2010.

Recommendations:

Formulating and implementing a strong human rights strategy and promoting peace requires the ability to meet short- and long-term objectives. Building a solid foundation for the protection of rights by helping to establish democratic institutions and the rule of law, and creating a space for civil society and a free media to flourish safely, are ways in which the United States can pursue its human rights goals. In order to craft a successful human rights policy and to implement it effectively, the United States must recognize that Africa's policy challenges (as in other parts of the world) are rooted in its highly dynamic and in some cases violent environment. Tenuous political systems, inter-ethnic conflicts, and humanitarian crises juxtaposed against resource-rich potential create the need for both short- and long-term approaches.

• U.S. human rights policy will increasingly need to rely on broader multilateral efforts in pursuing its objectives / credibility/ reduce the human and monetary costs of intervention.
• Public condemnation of abuses must be backed by accountability for those who commit them.
• Strengthen local institutions to establish a powerful foundation to maintain democracy.
• Activate the regional organizations to guarantee accountability, and adherence to human rights within the context.
• Early intervention reduce the monetary and the risk of grave atrocities. This would be through the strengthened local actors and regional organizations.
• Work with countries within the region. ·
• Addressing the underlying causes of conflicts by assistance for development and economic advancement. Also by supporting democratic institutions in the ground.
• Economic development will help to address the underlying causes of conflicts ·
• Prohibit arm sales to the governments abuse human rights.